If the Universe Is Infinite Will I Live Again

Theories about the cease of the universe

The ultimate fate of the universe is a topic in physical cosmology, whose theoretical restrictions allow possible scenarios for the evolution and ultimate fate of the universe to exist described and evaluated. Based on available observational evidence, deciding the fate and evolution of the universe has go a valid cosmological question, being beyond the mostly untestable constraints of mythological or theological beliefs. Several possible futures accept been predicted by different scientific hypotheses, including that the universe might accept existed for a finite and infinite duration, or towards explaining the fashion and circumstances of its beginning.

Observations made by Edwin Hubble during the 1930s–1950s found that galaxies appeared to be moving away from each other, leading to the currently accepted Large Bang theory. This suggests that the universe began very dense about 13.787 billion years ago, and it has expanded and (on boilerplate) get less dense always since.^[1] Confirmation of the Big Bang more often than not depends on knowing the charge per unit of expansion, boilerplate density of affair, and the concrete properties of the mass–energy in the universe.

There is a strong consensus amidst cosmologists that the shape of the universe is considered "flat" (parallel lines stay parallel) and will continue to aggrandize forever.^{[2] [three]}

Factors that need to be considered in determining the universe'due south origin and ultimate fate include the average motions of galaxies, the shape and construction of the universe, and the corporeality of night matter and night energy that the universe contains.

Emerging scientific ground [edit]

Theory [edit]

The theoretical scientific exploration of the ultimate fate of the universe became possible with Albert Einstein's 1915 theory of general relativity. General relativity tin can be employed to describe the universe on the largest possible calibration. There are several possible solutions to the equations of general relativity, and each solution implies a possible ultimate fate of the universe.

Alexander Friedmann proposed several solutions in 1922, every bit did Georges Lemaître in 1927.^[4] In some of these solutions, the universe has been expanding from an initial singularity which was, essentially, the Large Bang.

Observation [edit]

In 1929, Edwin Hubble published his conclusion, based on his observations of Cepheid variable stars in distant galaxies, that the universe was expanding. From and then on, the beginning of the universe and its possible end have been the subjects of serious scientific investigation.

Big Bang and Steady Country theories [edit]

In 1927, Georges Lemaître fix out a theory that has since come to be called the Big Blindside theory of the origin of the universe.^[4] In 1948, Fred Hoyle prepare out his opposing Steady State theory in which the universe continually expanded only remained statistically unchanged as new matter is constantly created. These two theories were active contenders until the 1965 discovery, by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, of the cosmic microwave background radiation, a fact that is a straightforward prediction of the Big Bang theory, and i that the original Steady Land theory could not account for. As a result, the Big Bang theory speedily became the most widely held view of the origin of the universe.

Cosmological constant [edit]

Einstein and his contemporaries believed in a static universe. When Einstein establish that his general relativity equations could easily be solved in such a way as to allow the universe to be expanding at the nowadays and contracting in the far future, he added to those equations what he chosen a cosmological constant ⁠— ⁠substantially a constant energy density, unaffected by any expansion or wrinkle ⁠— ⁠whose role was to offset the effect of gravity on the universe as a whole in such a way that the universe would remain static. However, later on Hubble announced his conclusion that the universe was expanding, Einstein would write that his cosmological constant was "the greatest corrigendum of my life."^[5]

Density parameter [edit]

An important parameter in fate of the universe theory is the density parameter, omega ( ${\displaystyle \Omega }$ ), defined as the average matter density of the universe divided by a critical value of that density. This selects ane of 3 possible geometries depending on whether ${\displaystyle \Omega }$ is equal to, less than, or greater than ${\displaystyle ane}$ . These are called, respectively, the flat, open and closed universes. These three adjectives refer to the overall geometry of the universe, and not to the local curving of spacetime caused by smaller clumps of mass (for case, galaxies and stars). If the primary content of the universe is inert matter, every bit in the dust models popular for much of the 20th century, there is a detail fate corresponding to each geometry. Hence cosmologists aimed to determine the fate of the universe by measuring ${\displaystyle \Omega }$ , or equivalently the rate at which the expansion was decelerating.

Repulsive force [edit]

Starting in 1998, observations of supernovas in distant galaxies have been interpreted as consequent^[6] with a universe whose expansion is accelerating. Subsequent cosmological theorizing has been designed so every bit to let for this possible acceleration, well-nigh always by invoking dark free energy, which in its simplest form is but a positive cosmological constant. In general, dark free energy is a catch-all term for whatsoever hypothesized field with negative pressure, ordinarily with a density that changes equally the universe expands.

Role of the shape of the universe [edit]

The ultimate fate of an expanding universe depends on the matter density ${\displaystyle \Omega _{M}}$ and the nighttime free energy density ${\displaystyle \Omega _{\Lambda }}$

The current scientific consensus of virtually cosmologists is that the ultimate fate of the universe depends on its overall shape, how much nighttime energy it contains and on the equation of state which determines how the nighttime energy density responds to the expansion of the universe.^[3] Recent observations conclude, from 7.5 billion years after the Big Bang, that the expansion charge per unit of the universe has probably been increasing, commensurate with the Open Universe theory.^[seven] However, other recent measurements by Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe suggest that the universe is either flat or very close to flat.^[2]

Airtight universe [edit]

If ${\displaystyle \Omega >i}$ , the geometry of infinite is closed similar the surface of a sphere. The sum of the angles of a triangle exceeds 180 degrees and there are no parallel lines; all lines eventually meet. The geometry of the universe is, at to the lowest degree on a very large scale, elliptic.

In a closed universe, gravity eventually stops the expansion of the universe, after which it starts to contract until all matter in the universe collapses to a point, a final singularity termed the "Big Crunch", the reverse of the Big Bang. Some new mod theories assume the universe may have a significant amount of night free energy, whose repulsive strength may exist sufficient to crusade the expansion of the universe to go on forever—fifty-fifty if ${\displaystyle \Omega >i}$ .^[viii]

Open up universe [edit]

If ${\displaystyle \Omega <1}$ , the geometry of space is open, i.eastward., negatively curved similar the surface of a saddle. The angles of a triangle sum to less than 180 degrees, and lines that do not meet are never equidistant; they have a point of least altitude and otherwise abound autonomously. The geometry of such a universe is hyperbolic.^[9]

Even without dark energy, a negatively curved universe expands forever, with gravity negligibly slowing the rate of expansion. With dark free energy, the expansion not simply continues but accelerates. The ultimate fate of an open universe is either universal heat death, a "Big Freeze" (non to be confused with estrus death, despite seemingly similar name interpretation ⁠— ⁠meet §Theories about the end of the universe below), or a "Big Rip",^[10] in particular dark free energy, quintessence,^[11] and the Big Rip scenario.^{[12] [xiii]} where the acceleration caused by dark energy eventually becomes so strong that it completely overwhelms the effects of the gravitational, electromagnetic and strong binding forces.

Conversely, a negative cosmological constant, which would correspond to a negative energy density and positive pressure, would crusade even an open universe to re-plummet to a big crunch.

Flat universe [edit]

If the average density of the universe exactly equals the critical density so that ${\displaystyle \Omega =1}$ , so the geometry of the universe is flat: as in Euclidean geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees and parallel lines continuously maintain the aforementioned distance. Measurements from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe have confirmed the universe is flat within a 0.four% margin of error.^[2]

In the absenteeism of dark free energy, a flat universe expands forever but at a continually decelerating rate, with expansion asymptotically approaching zero. With dark free energy, the expansion charge per unit of the universe initially slows down, due to the effects of gravity, but eventually increases, and the ultimate fate of the universe becomes the same as that of an open universe.

Theories about the end of the universe [edit]

The fate of the universe is determined past its density. The preponderance of evidence to appointment, based on measurements of the charge per unit of expansion and the mass density, favors a universe that will go on to expand indefinitely, resulting in the "Big Freeze" scenario below.^[14] All the same, observations are non conclusive, and culling models are still possible.^[fifteen]

Large Freeze or Heat Death [edit]

The Big Freeze (or Big Chill) is a scenario nether which continued expansion results in a universe that asymptotically approaches absolute aught temperature.^[sixteen] This scenario, in combination with the Big Rip scenario, is gaining basis every bit the virtually important hypothesis.^[17] It could, in the absence of night free energy, occur only nether a flat or hyperbolic geometry. With a positive cosmological constant, it could too occur in a closed universe. In this scenario, stars are expected to form normally for 10¹² to 10^fourteen (1–100 trillion) years, but somewhen the supply of gas needed for star formation volition exist wearied. Every bit existing stars run out of fuel and end to shine, the universe volition slowly and inexorably abound darker. Somewhen black holes will dominate the universe, which themselves will disappear over time as they emit Hawking radiation.^[18] Over space time, there would be a spontaneous entropy decrease by the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations,^{[nineteen] [20]} and the fluctuation theorem.^{[21] [22]}

A related scenario is heat death, which states that the universe goes to a land of maximum entropy in which everything is evenly distributed and there are no gradients—which are needed to sustain information processing, one grade of which is life. The heat expiry scenario is uniform with any of the three spatial models, but requires that the universe reach an eventual temperature minimum.^[23]

Large Rip [edit]

The current Hubble constant defines a rate of dispatch of the universe not large enough to destroy local structures like galaxies, which are held together by gravity, merely big enough to increase the space between them. A steady increase in the Hubble abiding to infinity would outcome in all fabric objects in the universe, starting with galaxies and eventually (in a finite time) all forms, no matter how small, disintegrating into unbound unproblematic particles, radiation and beyond. As the energy density, scale factor and expansion rate become infinite the universe ends as what is effectively a singularity.

In the special case of phantom night energy, which has supposed negative kinetic energy that would result in a higher rate of dispatch than other cosmological constants predict, a more sudden big rip could occur.

Big Crisis [edit]

The Big Crunch. The vertical axis can exist considered as expansion or contraction with time.

The Big Crunch hypothesis is a symmetric view of the ultimate fate of the universe. Just every bit the Big Blindside started as a cosmological expansion, this theory assumes that the boilerplate density of the universe will exist enough to stop its expansion and the universe will begin contracting. The result is unknown; a elementary estimation would accept all the matter and space-time in the universe collapse into a dimensionless singularity dorsum into how the universe started with the Large Blindside, but at these scales unknown breakthrough furnishings need to be considered (see Quantum gravity). Recent evidence suggests that this scenario is unlikely but has non been ruled out, as measurements accept been available only over a short period of time, relatively speaking, and could reverse in the hereafter.^[17]

This scenario allows the Big Bang to occur immediately after the Big Crisis of a preceding universe. If this happens repeatedly, it creates a cyclic model, which is also known as an oscillatory universe. The universe could then consist of an infinite sequence of finite universes, with each finite universe ending with a Big Crunch that is besides the Big Bang of the next universe. A problem with the circadian universe is that information technology does not reconcile with the second constabulary of thermodynamics, equally entropy would build upwards from oscillation to oscillation and crusade the eventual heat decease of the universe^{[ commendation needed ]}. Current evidence also indicates the universe is not closed^{[ commendation needed ]}. This has caused cosmologists to abandon the aquiver universe model. A somewhat similar thought is embraced by the cyclic model, just this idea evades heat death because of an expansion of the branes that dilutes entropy accumulated in the previous bicycle.^{[ citation needed ]}

Big Bounciness [edit]

The Big Bounciness is a theorized scientific model related to the first of the known universe. Information technology derives from the oscillatory universe or cyclic repetition interpretation of the Big Bang where the first cosmological event was the result of the collapse of a previous universe.

According to 1 version of the Big Bang theory of cosmology, in the commencement the universe was infinitely dense. Such a clarification seems to exist at odds with other more widely accepted theories, especially quantum mechanics and its uncertainty principle.^[24] Therefore, quantum mechanics has given rise to an alternative version of the Big Blindside theory, specifically that the universe tunneled into existence and had a finite density consistent with quantum mechanics, earlier evolving in a manner governed by classical physics.^[24] Also, if the universe is airtight, this theory would predict that once this universe collapses information technology volition spawn another universe in an consequence similar to the Big Blindside after a universal singularity is reached or a repulsive quantum force causes re-expansion.

In simple terms, this theory states that the universe will continuously repeat the wheel of a Large Blindside, followed up with a Big Crunch.

Catholic incertitude [edit]

Each possibility described so far is based on a very unproblematic form for the dark energy equation of land. However, as the name is meant to imply, very petty is currently known about the physics of dark energy. If the theory of aggrandizement is true, the universe went through an episode dominated by a different form of dark energy in the starting time moments of the Big Blindside, but inflation ended, indicating an equation of state far more than circuitous than those assumed so far for present-mean solar day dark energy. It is possible that the night energy equation of state could change again, resulting in an result that would have consequences which are extremely difficult to predict or parameterize. As the nature of dark energy and night affair remain enigmatic, fifty-fifty hypothetical, the possibilities surrounding their coming office in the universe are currently unknown. None of these theoretic endings for the universe are certain. In other words, considering the universe is just around 14 billion years old, extrapolating the trends observed in the cosmic history so far to a considerably longer timescale can be criticized as beingness insufficiently substantiated.

Other serious threats to the universe [edit]

At that place are likewise some possible events, such as the Big Slurp, which would seriously harm the universe, although the universe every bit a whole wouldn't be completely terminated as a result.

Big Slurp [edit]

This theory posits that the universe currently exists in a false vacuum and that it could become a true vacuum at whatever moment.

In order to all-time understand the false vacuum plummet theory, one must first understand the Higgs field which permeates the universe. Much similar an electromagnetic field, information technology varies in strength based upon its potential. A true vacuum exists so long every bit the universe exists in its everyman energy state, in which case the false vacuum theory is irrelevant. Still, if the vacuum is not in its lowest energy state (a false vacuum), information technology could tunnel into a lower-energy state.^[25] This is chosen vacuum disuse. This has the potential to fundamentally alter our universe; in more audacious scenarios even the various physical constants could accept different values, severely affecting the foundations of thing, energy, and spacetime. Information technology is also possible that all structures will be destroyed instantaneously, without any forewarning.^[26]

However, only a portion of the universe would be destroyed by the Big Slurp while most of the universe would still exist unaffected because galaxies located further than iv,200 megaparsecs (13,698,567,863 light-years) abroad from each other are moving away from each other faster than the speed of light while the Big Slurp itself cannot expand faster than the speed of light.^[27]

Observational constraints on theories [edit]

Choosing among these rival scenarios is done by 'weighing' the universe, for case, measuring the relative contributions of matter, radiation, dark matter, and dark energy to the critical density. More concretely, competing scenarios are evaluated against data on galaxy clustering and distant supernovas, and on the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background.

Come across likewise [edit]

• Alan Guth
• Andrei Linde
• Anthropic principle
• Pointer of fourth dimension
• Cosmological horizon
• Cyclic model
• Freeman Dyson
• General relativity
• John D. Barrow
• Kardashev scale
• Multiverse
• Shape of the universe
• Timeline of the far time to come
• Zero-energy universe

References [edit]

1. ^ Wollack, Edward J. (10 December 2010). "Cosmology: The Written report of the Universe". Universe 101: Big Bang Theory. NASA. Archived from the original on xiv May 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
2. ^ ^{a b c} "WMAP- Shape of the Universe". map.gsfc.nasa.gov.
3. ^ ^{a b} "WMAP- Fate of the Universe". map.gsfc.nasa.gov.
4. ^ ^{a b} Lemaître, Georges (1927). "United nations univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extra-galactiques". Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles. A47: 49–56. Bibcode:1927ASSB...47...49L. translated past A. S. Eddington: Lemaître, Georges (1931). "Expansion of the universe, A homogeneous universe of abiding mass and increasing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extra-galactic nebulæ". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Gild. 91 (five): 483–490. Bibcode:1931MNRAS..91..483L. doi:10.1093/mnras/91.v.483.
5. ^ Did Einstein Predict Dark Energy?, hubblesite.org
6. ^ Kirshner, Robert P. (13 Apr 1999). "Supernovae, an accelerating universe and the cosmological constant". Proceedings of the National University of Sciences. 96 (8): 4224–4227. Bibcode:1999PNAS...96.4224K. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.viii.4224. PMC33557. PMID 10200242.
7. ^ "Dark Energy, Dark Matter - Scientific discipline Mission Advisers". science.nasa.gov.
8. ^ Ryden, Barbara. Introduction to Cosmology. The Ohio Country University. p. 56.
9. ^ Tegmark, Max (2014). Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality (1 ed.). Knopf. ISBN978-0307599803.
10. ^ Caldwell, Robert R.; Kamionkowski, Marc (2009). "The Physics of Catholic Acceleration". Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 59 (ane): 397–429. arXiv:0903.0866. Bibcode:2009ARNPS..59..397C. doi:10.1146/annurev-nucl-010709-151330. S2CID 16727077.
11. ^ Caldwell, R.R.; Dave, R.; Steinhardt, P.J. (1998). "Cosmological Banner of an Energy Component with General Equation-of-State". Phys. Rev. Lett. 80 (viii): 1582–1585. arXiv:astro-ph/9708069. Bibcode:1998PhRvL..80.1582C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.fourscore.1582. S2CID 597168.
12. ^ Caldwell, Robert R. (2002). "A phantom menace? Cosmological consequences of a dark energy component with super-negative equation of land". Phys. Lett. B545 (1–two): 23–29. arXiv:astro-ph/9908168. Bibcode:2002PhLB..545...23C. doi:10.1016/S0370-2693(02)02589-3. S2CID 9820570.
13. ^ Caldwell, Robert R.; Kamionkowski, Marc; Weinberg, Nevin North. (2003). "Phantom Free energy and Cosmic Doomsday". Concrete Review Letters. 91 (7): 071301. arXiv:astro-ph/0302506. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91g1301C. doi:ten.1103/PhysRevLett.91.071301. PMID 12935004.
14. ^ WMAP - Fate of the Universe, WMAP'due south Universe, NASA. Accessed online July 17, 2008.
15. ^
16. ^ Glanz, James (1998). "Breakthrough of the twelvemonth 1998. Astronomy: Cosmic Motion Revealed". Science. 282 (5397): 2156–2157. Bibcode:1998Sci...282.2156G. doi:10.1126/science.282.5397.2156a. S2CID 117807831.
17. ^ ^{a b} Wang, Yun; Kratochvil, Jan Michael; Linde, Andrei; Shmakova, Marina (2004). "Current observational constraints on catholic doomsday". Journal of Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics. 2004 (12): 006. arXiv:astro-ph/0409264. Bibcode:2004JCAP...12..006W. doi:x.1088/1475-7516/2004/12/006. S2CID 56436935.
18. ^ Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (1997). "A dying universe: the long-term fate and development of astrophysical objects". Reviews of Modern Physics. 69 (two): 337–372. arXiv:astro-ph/9701131. Bibcode:1997RvMP...69..337A. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337. S2CID 12173790.
19. ^ Tegmark, M (May 2003). "Parallel Universes". Scientific American. 288 (5): forty–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:x.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID 12701329.
20. ^ Werlang, T.; Ribeiro, Chiliad. A. P.; Rigolin, Gustavo (2013). "Interplay Between Breakthrough Stage Transitions and the Behavior of Quantum Correlations at Finite Temperatures". International Journal of Modern Physics B. 27: 1345032. arXiv:1205.1046. Bibcode:2013IJMPB..2745032W. doi:10.1142/S021797921345032X. S2CID 119264198.
21. ^ Xing, Xiu-San; Steinhardt, Paul J.; Turok, Neil (2007). "Spontaneous entropy subtract and its statistical formula". arXiv:0710.4624 [cond-mat.stat-mech].
22. ^ Linde, Andrei (2007). "Sinks in the landscape, Boltzmann brains and the cosmological constant trouble". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2007 (1): 022. arXiv:hep-thursday/0611043. Bibcode:2007JCAP...01..022L. CiteSeerX10.1.i.266.8334. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022. S2CID 16984680.
23. ^ Yurov, A. 5.; Astashenok, A. V.; González-Díaz, P. F. (2008). "Astronomical premises on a future Big Freeze singularity". Gravitation and Cosmology. xiv (3): 205–212. arXiv:0705.4108. Bibcode:2008GrCo...14..205Y. doi:ten.1134/S0202289308030018. S2CID 119265830.
24. ^ ^{a b} Halliwell, J. J. (1991). "Breakthrough cosmology and the creation of the universe". Scientific American. 265: 76, 85. Bibcode:1991SciAm.265f..28H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1291-76. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: engagement and year (link)
25. ^
    • K. Stone (1976). "Lifetime and decay of excited vacuum states". Phys. Rev. D. 14 (12): 3568–3573. Bibcode:1976PhRvD..14.3568S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.3568.
    • P.H. Frampton (1976). "Vacuum Instability and Higgs Scalar Mass". Phys. Rev. Lett. 37 (21): 1378–1380. Bibcode:1976PhRvL..37.1378F. doi:ten.1103/PhysRevLett.37.1378.
    • M. Stone (1977). "Semiclassical methods for unstable states". Phys. Lett. B. 67 (2): 186–188. Bibcode:1977PhLB...67..186S. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(77)90099-5.
    • P.H. Frampton (1977). "Consequences of Vacuum Instability in Quantum Field Theory". Phys. Rev. D15 (10): 2922–28. Bibcode:1977PhRvD..15.2922F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.15.2922.
    • S. Coleman (1977). "Fate of the simulated vacuum: Semiclassical theory". Phys. Rev. D15 (10): 2929–36. Bibcode:1977PhRvD..15.2929C. doi:10.1103/physrevd.xv.2929.
    • C. Callan & Southward. Coleman (1977). "Fate of the imitation vacuum. II. Commencement quantum corrections". Phys. Rev. D16 (6): 1762–68. Bibcode:1977PhRvD..sixteen.1762C. doi:10.1103/physrevd.xvi.1762.
26. ^ S. W. Hawking & I. G. Moss (1982). "Supercooled phase transitions in the very early universe". Phys. Lett. B110 (1): 35–8. Bibcode:1982PhLB..110...35H. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(82)90946-seven.
27. ^ How are galaxies moving abroad faster than lite?

Further reading [edit]

• Adams, Fred; Gregory Laughlin (2000). The Five Ages of the Universe: Inside the Physics of Eternity. Simon & Schuster Commonwealth of australia. ISBN978-0-684-86576-8.
• Chaisson, Eric (2001). Catholic Evolution: The Rise of Complication in Nature. Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-00342-2.
• Dyson, Freeman (2004). Infinite in All Directions (the 1985 Gifford Lectures). Harper Perennial. ISBN978-0-06-039081-5.
• Harrison, Edward (2003). Masks of the Universe: Irresolute Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-77351-5.
• Mack, Katie (2020). The End of Everything: (Astrophysically Speaking). Scribner. ISBN978-1982103545.
• Penrose, Roger (2004). The Road to Reality. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN978-0-679-45443-4.
• Prigogine, Ilya (2003). Is Future Given?. Earth Scientific Publishing. ISBN978-981-238-508-6.
• Smolin, Lee (2001). Three Roads to Quantum Gravity: A New Understanding of Space, Time and the Universe. Phoenix. ISBN978-0-7538-1261-7.
• Morris, Richard (1982). The Fate of the Universe. Playboy Printing, New York. ISBN 978-0-87223-748-6
• Islam, Jamal N. (1983). The Ultimate Fate of the Universe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0521-24814-3

External links [edit]

• Baez, J., 2004, "The Stop of the Universe".
• Caldwell, R. R.; Kamionski, K.; Weinberg, N. N. (2003). "Phantom Energy and Cosmic Doomsday". Concrete Review Letters. 91 (seven): 071301. arXiv:astro-ph/0302506. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91g1301C. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.91.071301. PMID 12935004.
• Hjalmarsdotter, Linnea, 2005, "Cosmological parameters."
• George Musser (2010). "Could Time End?". Scientific American. 303 (three): 84–91. Bibcode:2010SciAm.303c..84M. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0910-84. PMID 20812485.
• Vaas, Ruediger; Steinhardt, Paul J.; Turok, Neil (2007). "Dark Free energy and Life'southward Ultimate Futurity". arXiv:physics/0703183.
• A Brief History of the End of Everything, a BBC Radio 4 series.
• Cosmology at Caltech.
• Jamal Nazrul Islam (1983): The Ultimate Fate of the Universe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. ISBN 978-0-521-11312-0. (Digital print version published in 2009).

fanninussighboult.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe

Share this post